Anthropology Anthropology /ænθrɵˈpɒlədʒi/ is the study of humankind, past and present,[1][2] that draws and builds upon knowledge from social and biological sciences, as well as the humanities and the natural sciences.[3][4] Since the work of Franz Boas and Bronisław Malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, anthropology in Great Britain and the US has been distinguished from ethnology[5] and from other social sciences by its emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons, long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance it places on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research. In those European countries that did not have overseas colonies, where ethnology (a term coined and defined by Adam F. Origin of the term[edit] The term anthropology originates from the Greek anthrōpos (ἄνθρωπος), "human being" (understood to mean humankind or humanity), and -λογία -logia, "study." Fields[edit] According to Clifford Geertz, Sociocultural[edit] Biological[edit]
Epistemological psychology Epistemological psychology is a multi-sided perspective in psychology uncovering simple primary hidden inklings (images) in ideas, actions, feelings and all social interactions. The inkling is presumed to trigger an affect which encapsulates and saturates all human experience. In everyday life, inklings induce detection either via human enactments (through habitual behavior) or through spontaneous devotion (conscious expression in the arts). The term episteme is related to the Greek word επιστήμη, which translates literally as standing near or by that which causes but is often simplified as knowledge or science. History[edit] Episteme psychology began with the 1940s written works of Gaston Bachelard, whose many books focused on poetics and (day-) dreaming. See also[edit] Further reading[edit] References[edit]
Computer science Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of information and computation, together with practical techniques for the implementation and application of these foundations History[edit] The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator, Pascal's calculator, in 1642.[3] In 1673 Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the 'Stepped Reckoner'.[4] He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons, documenting the binary number system. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology. Contributions[edit] These contributions include: Philosophy[edit] sequence:
Differential psychology Differential psychology studies the ways in which individuals differ in their behavior. This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists often study groups or biological underpinnings of cognition. For example, in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in one treatment group might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a placebo (or a well-known therapy) in a second, control group. In this context, differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study. This is because psychological research depends upon statistical controls that are only defined upon groups of people. Importance of individual differences[edit] Areas of study[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] Further reading[edit]
Cognitive science Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes.[1] It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitive science consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.[2] It spans many levels of analysis, from low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. The fundamental concept of cognitive science is "that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures. Principles[edit]
Experimental aesthetics Nowadays, psychologists and neuroscientists define the field of aesthetics more narrowly as considering the perception, creation, and evaluation of objects that evoke an intense feeling.[2] It is a specialized sub-field of empirical aesthetics that distinguishes itself by using experiments to test causal hypotheses. In contrast, empirical aesthetics also embraces survey studies, field observations, and other non-experimental methods. The field has developed significantly over the past few decades. On the one hand, through the continuous development of cognitive and emotional models of the description of aesthetic experience,[3][4] taking into account various psychological variables. Experimental aesthetics is strongly oriented towards the natural sciences. Methodology[edit] The analysis of individual experience and behavior based on experimental methods is a central part of experimental aesthetics. Here it is difficult to assign an absolute value to the aesthetics of an object.
Neuroplasticity Contrary to conventional thought as expressed in this diagram, brain functions are not confined to certain fixed locations. Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity, is an umbrella term that encompasses both synaptic plasticity and non-synaptic plasticity—it refers to changes in neural pathways and synapses which are due to changes in behavior, environment and neural processes, as well as changes resulting from bodily injury.[1] Neuroplasticity has replaced the formerly-held position that the brain is a physiologically static organ, and explores how - and in which ways - the brain changes throughout life.[2] Neuroplasticity occurs on a variety of levels, ranging from cellular changes due to learning, to large-scale changes involved in cortical remapping in response to injury. The role of neuroplasticity is widely recognized in healthy development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage. Neurobiology[edit] Cortical maps[edit] Applications and example[edit] Vision[edit]
Food psychology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Psychology of food choice Food psychology is the psychological study of how people choose the food they eat (food choice), along with food and eating behaviors.[1] Food psychology is an applied psychology, using existing psychological methods and findings to understand food choice and eating behaviors.[2] Factors studied by food psychology include food cravings, sensory experiences of food, perceptions of food security and food safety, price, available product information such as nutrition labeling and the purchasing environment (which may be physical or online). As of 2022[update], there are no specific journals for food psychology, with research being published in both nutrition and psychology journals.[4][8] COVID-19[edit] Food psychology has been used to examine how eating behaviors have been globally affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Italy[edit] See also[edit] References[edit]
Artificial Intelligence AI research is highly technical and specialized, and is deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other.[5] Some of the division is due to social and cultural factors: subfields have grown up around particular institutions and the work of individual researchers. AI research is also divided by several technical issues. Some subfields focus on the solution of specific problems. Others focus on one of several possible approaches or on the use of a particular tool or towards the accomplishment of particular applications. The central problems (or goals) of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing (communication), perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.[6] General intelligence is still among the field's long-term goals.[7] Currently popular approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence and traditional symbolic AI. History[edit] Research[edit] Goals[edit] Planning[edit] Logic-based
Critical psychology Critical psychology is a perspective on psychology that draws extensively on critical theory. Critical psychology challenges mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychological understandings in more progressive ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating psychopathology. One of critical psychology's main criticisms of conventional psychology is that it fails to consider or deliberately ignores the way power differences between social classes and groups can impact the mental and physical well-being of individuals or groups of people. Origins[edit] Criticisms of mainstream psychology consistent with current critical psychology usage have existed since psychology's modern development in the late 19th century. Klaus Holzkamp[edit] One of the most important and sophisticated books in the field is the Grundlegung der Psychologie[2] (Foundations of Psychology) by Klaus Holzkamp, who might be considered the theoretical founder of critical psychology.