Natural Gas Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame.[1] Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly includes varying amounts of other higher alkanes and even a lesser percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide.[2] Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must be processed to remove impurities, including water, to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas. Sources[edit]
Ethanol fermentation In ethanol fermentation, one glucose molecule breaks down into two pyruvates (1). The energy from this exothermic reaction is used to bind inorganic phosphates to ADP and convert NAD+ to NADH. The two pyruvates are then broken down into two acetaldehydes and give off two CO2 as a waste product (2). The two acetaldehydes are then converted to two ethanol by using the H- ions from NADH; converting NADH back into NAD+ (3). Alcoholic fermentation, also referred to as ethanol fermentation, is a biological process in which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and thereby produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products. Alcoholic fermentation occurs in the production of alcoholic beverages and ethanol fuel, and in the rising of bread dough. Grapes fermenting during the production of exempt of wine. Chemical process of fermentation of glucose[edit] A laboratory vessel being used for the fermentation of straw. Effect of oxygen[edit]
Vegetable oil fuel Waste vegetable oil which has been filtered. Vegetable oil is an alternative fuel for Diesel engines and for heating oil burners. For engines designed to burn diesel fuel, the viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper atomization of the fuel, otherwise incomplete combustion and carbon build up will ultimately damage the engine. History[edit] Rudolf Diesel Rudolf Diesel was the father of the engine which bears his name. Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. Academic research into straight vegetable oil fell off sharply in the 1980s with falling petroleum prices and greater interest in biodiesel as an option that did not require extensive vehicle modification. Application and usability[edit] Modified fuel systems[edit] Unmodified indirect injection engines[edit] Home heating[edit]
Hydroelectricity Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for 16 percent of global electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010,[1] and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. History Museum Hydroelectric power plant ″Under the Town″ in Serbia, built in 1900.[3][4] Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. Pumped-storage
Fermentation Fermentation in progress: Impurities formed by CO2 gas bubbles and fermenting material. Overview of ethanol fermentation. One glucose molecule breaks down into two pyruvates (1). The energy from this exothermic reaction is used to bind inorganic phosphates to ADP and convert NAD+ to NADH. The two pyruvates are then broken down into two Acetaldehyde and give off two CO2 as a waste product (2). Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases and/or alcohol. Fermentation takes place in the absence of oxygen (when the electron transport chain is unusable) and becomes the cell’s primary means of ATP (energy) production.[1] It turns NADH and pyruvate produced in the glycolysis step into NAD+ and various small molecules (see examples below). The first step, glycolysis, is common to all fermentation pathways: C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 CH3COCOO− + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H2O + 2H+ Pyruvate is CH3COCOO−. Examples[edit] Chemistry[edit] Ethanol fermentation[edit]
Papermaking Paper-making is the process of making paper, a substance which is used universally today for writing and packaging. In paper-making, a dilute suspension of fibres in water is drained through a screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is removed from this mat of fibres by pressing and drying to make paper. History[edit] Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BCE. In the 8th century, paper spread to the Islamic world, where the rudimentary and laborious process of paper-making was refined and machinery was designed for bulk manufacturing of paper. Modern paper-making began in the early 19th century in Europe with the development of Fourdrinier machine, which produces a continuous roll of paper rather than individual sheets. Manual paper-making[edit] The method of manual paper-making changed very little over time, despite advances in technologies. Separating the useful fibre from the rest of raw materials. The wooden frame is called a "deckle". Folio[edit]
Types of Alternative Energy Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic digestion also occurs naturally in some soils and in lake and oceanic basin sediments, where it is usually referred to as "anaerobic activity".[2][3] This is the source of marsh gas methane as discovered by Volta in 1776.[4][5] The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials. Insoluble organic polymers, such as carbohydrates, are broken down to soluble derivatives that become available for other bacteria. Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids. It is used as part of the process to treat biodegradable waste and sewage sludge. Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a source of renewable energy. History[edit] Gas street lamp Research on anaerobic digestion began in earnest in the 1930s.[17] Process[edit] Many microorganisms affect anaerobic digestion, including acetic acid-forming bacteria (acetogens) and methane-forming archaea (methanogens). Process stages[edit]
Textile Mrs. Condé Nast wearing one of the famous Fortuny tea gowns. This one has no tunic but is finely pleated, in the Fortuny manner, and falls in long lines, closely following the figure, to the floor. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. Etymology[edit] The word 'textile' is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning 'woven', from textus, the past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'.[4] The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, most recently from the Middle French fabrique, or 'building, thing made', and earlier as the Latin fabrica 'workshop; an art, trade; a skillful production, structure, fabric', which is from the Latin faber, or 'artisan who works in hard materials', from PIE dhabh-, meaning 'to fit together'.[5] History[edit] During the 15th century, textiles were the largest single industry. Uses[edit] Fashion and textile designers[edit] Sources and types[edit] Animal textiles[edit]
Hydrogen Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century, via the mixing of metals with acids. In 1766–81, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance,[8] and that it produces water when burned, a property which later gave it its name: in Greek, hydrogen means "water-former". Industrial production is mainly from the steam reforming of natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive hydrogen production methods like the electrolysis of water.[9] Most hydrogen is employed near its production site, with the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydrocracking) and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market. Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals,[10] complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.[11] Properties Combustion 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)[note 2] H2 reacts with every oxidizing element. Electron energy levels Main article: Hydrogen atom Phases
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis (/haɪˈdrɒlɨsɪs/; from Greek hydro-, meaning "water", and lysis, meaning "separation") usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. Where a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g. sucrose being broken down into glucose and fructose), this is termed saccharification. Generally, hydrolysis or saccharification is a step in the degradation of a substance. Types[edit] Usually hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a substance. Salts[edit] Strong acids also undergo hydrolysis. Esters and amides[edit] Acid–base-catalysed hydrolyses are very common; one example is the hydrolysis of amides or esters. Perhaps the oldest commercially practiced example of ester hydrolysis is saponification (formation of soap). In addition, in living systems, most biochemical reactions (including ATP hydrolysis) take place during the catalysis of enzymes. ATP[edit] Polysaccharides [edit] Sucrose. [edit]
Definitions and Descriptions of Fabric and Cloth Fabric and Cloth This is a rather odd category, listing 269 names of kinds of fabric and cloth. There is an enormous variety in fabrics, with many different national, historical and regional varieties. It is interesting to note, however, that almost all of the types of fabric listed below are variants or blends of just five basic fabric types (silk, cotton, linen, wool and worsted). Many of the terms are foreign in origin; English orthography has been adopted where it exists. PLEASE NOTE: I am not a fabric dealer. I hope you have found this site to be useful.
Geothermal Enegry From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide, 11,400 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012.[5] An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.[6] Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly,[7] but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. History