Game theory Game theory is the study of strategic decision making. Specifically, it is "the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers."[1] An alternative term suggested "as a more descriptive name for the discipline" is interactive decision theory.[2] Game theory is mainly used in economics, political science, and psychology, as well as logic, computer science, and biology. The subject first addressed zero-sum games, such that one person's gains exactly equal net losses of the other participant or participants. Modern game theory began with the idea regarding the existence of mixed-strategy equilibria in two-person zero-sum games and its proof by John von Neumann. This theory was developed extensively in the 1950s by many scholars. Representation of games[edit] Most cooperative games are presented in the characteristic function form, while the extensive and the normal forms are used to define noncooperative games. Extensive form[edit] [edit]
John Oliver reams wealthy, entitled ‘dweebs’ at tech awards show: ‘F*ck you, straight away’ By David FergusonWednesday, February 12, 2014 9:39 EDT “Daily Show” alumnus John Oliver emceed the annual “Crunchie” awards on Tuesday night, but was apparently not feeling any great love toward the assembled crowd of tech industry elites. “F*ck you, straight away,” he said by way of greeting as he took the stage. “It is once again an honor,” he continued, “to be in a room with such an illustrious group of high-functioning nerds. Thank you for having me, dweebs.” He went on the ridicule the sense of entitlement that is coming to be associated with Silicon Valley’s millionaire culture and the way those who benefit from the tech boom are contemptuous of people poorer and worse off than themselves. Perhaps, he said, San Francisco’s notorious Google buses — which ferry employees back and forth to work but not regular citizens — should tint their windows from the inside so that the riders aren’t troubled by the sight of “peasants” during their daily commute. David Ferguson
Pundit (expert) A pundit (sometimes called Talking Head) is someone who offers to mass media his or her opinion or commentary on a particular subject area (most typically political analysis, the social sciences, technology or sport) on which they are knowledgeable (or can at least appear to be knowledgeable), or considered a scholar in said area. The term has been increasingly applied to popular media personalities.[1] In certain cases, it may be used in a derogatory manner as well, as the political equivalent of ideologue. Origins[edit] The term originates from the Sanskrit term pandit, (paṇḍitá), meaning "learned" (see also Pandit). Current use[edit] In Anglophone countries[edit] In the English-speaking West, pundits write signed articles in print media (blurbs included), and appear on radio, television, or the internet with opinions on current events. At the same time, many people who appear as pundits are recognized for having serious academic and scholarly experience in the subject at hand.
Social psychology (sociology) Sociological social psychology was born in 1902 with the landmark study by sociologist Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order, which presented Cooley's concept of the looking glass self. The first textbook in social psychology by a sociologist appeared in 1908 — Social Psychology by Edward Alsworth Ross. The area's main journal was founded as Sociometry by Jacob L. Moreno in 1937. The journal's name changed to Social Psychology in 1978, and to Social Psychology Quarterly in 1979. In the 1920s W. One of the major currents of theory in this area sprang from work by philosopher and sociologist George Herbert Mead at the University of Chicago from 1894 forward. Contemporary symbolic interactionism originated out of ideas of George Herbert Mead and Max Weber. Social exchange theory emphasizes the idea that social action is the result of personal choices made in order to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Social Influence is a factor in every individual's life.
Affect control theory Affective meaning[edit] Besides a denotative meaning, every concept has an affective meaning, or connotation, that varies along three dimensions:[1] evaluation – goodness versus badness, potency – powerfulness versus powerlessness, and activity – liveliness versus torpidity. Affective meanings can be measured with semantic differentials yielding a three-number profile indicating how the concept is positioned on evaluation, potency, and activity (EPA). Osgood[2] demonstrated that an elementary concept conveyed by a word or idiom has a normative affective meaning within a particular culture. A stable affective meaning derived either from personal experience or from cultural inculcation is called a sentiment, or fundamental affective meaning, in affect control theory. Impression formation[edit] Each concept that is in play in a situation has a transient affective meaning in addition to an associated sentiment. Here are two examples of impression-formation processes. Deflections[edit]
Social exchange theory History[edit] Social exchange theory was introduced in 1958 by the sociologist George Homans with the publication of his work "Social Behavior as Exchange".[1] He defined social exchange as the exchange of activity, tangible or intangible, and more or less rewarding or costly, between at least two persons.[2] After Homans founded the theory, other theorists continued to write about it, particularly Peter M. Blau and Richard M. Homans summarizes the system in three propositions success, stimulus, deprivation–satiation proposition.[4] 1. Peter Blau focused his early writings on social exchange theory more towards the economic and utilitarian perspective. Richard Emerson's early work on the theory intertwined with both Homans and Blau's ideas. Self-interest and Interdependence[edit] Basic concepts[edit] Cost and rewards[edit] Rewards are the elements of a relationship that have positive value. Worth = Rewards – Costs If worth is a positive number, it is a positive relationship. Critiques[edit]
Rational choice theory Rationality is widely used as an assumption of the behavior of individuals in microeconomic models and analyses and appears in almost all economics textbook treatments of human decision-making. It is also central to some of modern political science,[2] sociology,[3] and philosophy. A particular version of rationality is instrumental rationality, which involves seeking the most cost-effective means to achieve a specific goal without reflecting on the worthiness of that goal. Gary Becker was an early proponent of applying rational actor models more widely.[4] Becker won the 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his studies of discrimination, crime, and human capital.[5] Definition and scope[edit] The concept of rationality used in rational choice theory is different from the colloquial and most philosophical use of the word. Rational choice theorists do not claim that the theory describes the choice process, but rather that it predicts the outcome and pattern of choices.
Role theory Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out of socially defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, teacher). Each social role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviours that a person has to face and fulfill. The model is based on the observation that people behave in a predictable way, and that an individual’s behavior is context specific, based on social position and other factors. The theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory. Although the word role (or roll) has existed in European languages for centuries, as a sociological concept, the term has only been around since the 1920s and 1930s. Depending on the general perspective of the theoretical tradition, there are many ‘‘types’’ of role theory. A key insight of this theory is that role conflict occurs when a person is expected to simultaneously act out multiple roles that carry contradictory expectations.
Antonio Gramsci, schooling and education contents: introduction · ideological hegemony · organic intellectuals · gramsci on schooling and education · references · how to cite this article Antonio Gramsci (1891 – 1937) was a leading Italian Marxist. He was an intellectual, a journalist and a major theorist who spent his last eleven years in Mussolini’s prisons. He was born in a little town on the island of Sardinia in 1891, one of seven children. The organised workers of Turin had a very combative history. Gramsci had already become a socialist through reading pamphlets sent home to Sardinia from the mainland by an older brother. Gramsci’s significance for informal education lies in three realms. Ideological Hegemony Gramsci accepted the analysis of capitalism put forward by Marx in the previous century and accepted that the struggle between the ruling class and the subordinate working class was the driving force that moved society forward. Often the term “ideology” is seen as referring simply to a system of ideas and beliefs.
Self-actualization Self-actualization is a term that has been used in various psychology theories, often in slightly different ways. The term was originally introduced by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one's full potential. Expressing one's creativity, quest for spiritual enlightenment, pursuit of knowledge, and the desire to give to society are examples of self-actualization. In Goldstein's view, it is the organism's master motive, the only real motive: "the tendency to actualize itself as fully as possible is the basic drive... the drive of self-actualization. As Abraham Maslow noted, the basic needs of humans must be met (e.g. food, shelter, warmth, security, sense of belongingness) before a person can achieve self-actualization - the need to be good, to be fully alive and to find meaning in life. In Goldstein's theory[edit] Maslow's hierarchy of needs[edit] Maslow's characteristics of self-actualizers[edit] Maslow's self-actualizing characteristics In psychology[edit]
Epigenetics One example of an epigenetic change in eukaryotic biology is the process of cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo, which in turn become fully differentiated cells. In other words, as a single fertilized egg cell – the zygote – continues to divide, the resulting daughter cells change into all the different cell types in an organism, including neurons, muscle cells, epithelium, endothelium of blood vessels, etc., by activating some genes while inhibiting the expression of others.[5] Historical usage of "epigenetics"[edit] The term "epigenetics" has also been used in developmental psychology to describe psychological development as the result of an ongoing, bi-directional interchange between heredity and the environment.[13] Interactivist ideas of development have been discussed in various forms and under various names throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Contemporary usage of "epigenetics"[edit]
Concision Description[edit] Concision may involve removing redundant or unnecessary phrases or replacing them with shorter ones. It is described in The Elements of Style by Strunk and White as follows:[1] Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell. Concision has also been described as "eliminat[ing] words that take up space without saying much An example sentence, with explanation:[2] "It is a fact that most arguments must try to convince readers, that is the audience, that the arguments are true." Example paragraph[edit] The following example is taken from:[3] The author of the poem illustrated various differences between the characters. This can be replaced with: