Formal science Formal sciences are disciplines concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and portions of linguistics. Whereas the natural sciences seek to characterize physical systems, the formal sciences are concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by sign systems. The formal sciences aid the natural sciences by providing information about the structures the latter use to describe the world, and what inferences may be made about them. History[edit] Formal sciences began before the formulation of scientific method, with the most ancient mathematical texts dating back to 1800 BC (Babylonian mathematics), 1600 BC (Egyptian mathematics) and 1000 BC (Indian mathematics). Besides mathematics, logic is another example of one of oldest subjects in the field of the formal sciences. Differences from other forms of science[edit] See also[edit] References[edit]
Earth science A volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below the surface of Earth, originating from radioactive decay and gravitational sorting in the Earth's core and mantle, and residual energy gained during the Earth's formation[1] Fields of study[edit] The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth Sciences: Earth's interior[edit] Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's crust.[10] Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the earth is resurfaced. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Earth's electromagnetic field[edit] Atmosphere[edit] The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind. The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. Methodology[edit] Earth's spheres[edit]
Social science Social science is an academic discipline concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It includes anthropology, economics, political science, psychology and sociology. In a wider sense, it may often include some fields in the humanities[1] such as archaeology, history, law, and linguistics. The term may however be used in the specific context of referring to the original science of society, established in 19th century, sociology (Latin: socius, "companion"; Greek λόγος, lógos, "word", "knowledge", "study."). Émile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber are typically cited as the principal architects of modern social science by this definition.[2] Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. History[edit] Branches[edit] Anthropology[edit] Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence.
Life sciences The life sciences comprise the fields of science that involve the scientific study of living organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, animals, and human beings – as well as related considerations like bioethics. While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields.[1] Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. There is considerable overlap between many of the topics of study in the life sciences. Topics of study[edit] Affective neuroscience[edit] Anatomy[edit] Sagittal MRI scan of the head Astrobiology[edit] Biochemistry[edit] A schematic of hemoglobin. Biocomputers[edit] Biocomputers use systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. Biocontrol[edit]
Applied science Applied science is a discipline of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, such as technology or inventions. Within natural science, disciplines that are basic science, also called pure science, develop information to predict and perhaps explain—thus somehow understand—phenomena in the natural world. Applied science applies the basic science toward practical endeavors. Applied science is typically engineering, which develops technology, although there might be feedback between basic science and applied science: research and development (R&D). Medical sciences, for instance medical microbiology and its clinical virology, are applied sciences that apply biology toward medical knowledge and inventions, but not necessarily medical technology, whose development is more specifically biomedicine or bio-medical engineering. Fields of applied sciences[edit] In education[edit] See also[edit] References[edit]
Outline of earth science The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to earth science: Earth's spheres[edit] The Earth's spheres are the many "spheres" into which the planet Earth is divided. The four most often recognized are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. As a whole, the system is sometimes referred to as an ecosphere. Branches of earth science[edit] Geology[edit] Geography[edit] Soil science[edit] Atmospheric science[edit] Oceanography[edit] Glaciology[edit] Glaciology Geoinformatics[edit] History of earth science[edit] Main article: History of earth science; see also History of geology Earth science topics[edit] Main article: List of earth science topics See also[edit] List of geoscience organizations References[edit] External links[edit]
Humanities The humanities are academic disciplines that study human culture. The humanities use methods that are primarily critical, or speculative, and have a significant historical element[1]—as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences.[1] The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, and visual and performing arts such as music and theatre. The humanities that are also sometimes regarded as social sciences include history, anthropology, area studies, communication studies, cultural studies, law and linguistics. Scholars in the humanities are "humanities scholars" or humanists.[2] The term "humanist" also describes the philosophical position of humanism, which some "antihumanist" scholars in the humanities refuse. Fields[edit] Classics[edit] Bust of Homer, a Greek poet The classics, in the Western academic tradition, refer to cultures of classical antiquity, namely the Ancient Greek and Roman cultures. History[edit] Law[edit]
La Liste rouge des espèces menacées en France Pour préserver la diversité de la faune et de la flore, il est important de connaître la situation précise de chaque espèce, de surveiller l’évolution des menaces et d’identifier les priorités d’actions : c’est l’objectif de la Liste rouge nationale des espèces menacées. © Fabrice Croset Etablie conformément aux critères internationaux de l’UICN, la Liste rouge nationale dresse un bilan objectif du degré de menace pesant sur les espèces en métropole et en outre-mer. La Liste rouge des espèces menacées en France est réalisée par le Comité français de l’UICN et le Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (MNHN/SPN). L’état des lieux se décline en chapitres taxonomiques (mammifères, plantes vasculaires, crustacés, libellules…) et géographiques (métropole, Guadeloupe, Réunion, Nouvelle-Calédonie…). Document de présentation : >> Contexte, enjeux et démarche d’élaboration (pdf 1,2 Mo) Quelques chiffres clefs : >> Tableau de synthèse des résultats de la Liste rouge nationale (pdf 523 ko) Outre-mer :