United States The United States of America (USA)—commonly referred to as the United States (US), America or simply the States— is a federal republic[10][11] consisting of 50 states and a federal district. The 48 contiguous states and the federal district of Washington, D.C., are in central North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is the northwestern part of North America and the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also has five populated and nine unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean. At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) in total and with around 317 million people, the United States is the fourth-largest country by total area and third largest by population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries.[12] The geography and climate of the United States is also extremely diverse, and it is home to a wide variety of wildlife. History
Sozialismus Der Sozialismus (von lateinisch socialis ‚kameradschaftlich‘) ist eine der im 19. Jahrhundert entstandenen drei großen politischen Ideologien neben dem Liberalismus und Konservatismus. Es gibt keine eindeutige Definition des Begriffs. Historisch bestehen und bestanden in vielen Staaten Systeme, die – teils als Eigenbezeichnung – mit Realsozialismus, aber auch als Staatssozialismus bezeichnet werden und sich grundsätzlich als autoritäre oder totalitäre Systeme einordnen lassen; zu nennen sind u. a. die Sowjetunion, China, Nordkorea, die DDR oder Kuba. Begriff[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Begriffsgeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Als socialistae (lateinisch) oder socialisti (italienisch) wurden im 18. Erstmals findet sich das Wort Sozialismus 1803 in der italienischen Form socialismo. Das Adjektiv sozialistisch dagegen wird von Anfang an politisch verstanden. Definitionsproblematik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Historischer Überblick[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
Libertarian Party (United States) Tonie Nathan, running as the Libertarian Party's vice-presidential candidate in the 1972 Presidential Election with John Hospers as the presidential candidate, was the first female candidate in the United States to win an electoral vote.[9][23] The 2012 election Libertarian Party presidential candidate, former New Mexico governor Gary Johnson, was chosen on May 4, 2012 at the 2012 Libertarian National Convention in Summerlin, Nevada.[26] "There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch" In 1972, "Libertarian Party" was chosen as the party's name, selected over "New Liberty Party Also in 1972, the "Libersign"—an arrow angling upward through the abbreviation "TANSTAAFL"—was adopted as a party symbol.[27] Sometime after, this was replaced with the Lady Liberty, which has, ever since, served as the party's symbol or mascot.[29][30] The porcupine is also a mascot of the Libertarian Party. The Libertarian National Committee (LNC)[33] is a 27-member body, currently chaired by Geoff Neale.
Étienne Cabet Étienne Cabet Étienne Cabet (* 1. Januar 1788 in Dijon , Frankreich ; † 8. Leben und Wirken [ Bearbeiten ] Cabet gehörte nach Abschluss seines Jurastudiums 1812 zunächst zu den Gegnern Napoleons , übernahm aber die Verteidigung von dessen Anhängern, als ihnen nach der Niederlage von Waterloo der Prozess gemacht wurde. Enttäuscht von dem autoritären Verhalten und der sozialen Kälte des Bürgerkönigs wurde Cabet zum Sozialisten . Dort gelangte er in Verbindung zum Philanthropen Robert Owen , dessen Ideen in ihm den Plan reifen ließen, sozialistische Strukturen in Frankreich zu realisieren. Aufgrund seines aufbrausenden Temperaments und seines Geltungsbedürfnisses isolierte Cabet sich zunehmend. Werke (Auswahl) [ Bearbeiten ] Literatur [ Bearbeiten ] Joachim Höppner, Waltraud Seidel-Höppner: Etienne Cabet und seine ikarische Kolonie. Personenartikel in älteren Lexika Einzelnachweise [ Bearbeiten ] ↑ Emil Weller: Lexicon pseudonymorum. Weblinks [ Bearbeiten ]
Democratic Party (United States) Since the 1930s, the party has promoted a social liberal platform.[2][11][12] Until the late 20th century the party had a powerful conservative and populist wing based in the rural South, which over time has greatly diminished. Today its Congressional caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists.[13] History The Democratic Party evolved from the Jeffersonian Republican or Democratic-Republican Party organized by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in opposition to the Federalist party of Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. The party favored republicanism, a weak federal government, states' rights, agrarian interests (especially Southern planters) and strict adherence to the Constitution; it opposed a national bank, close ties to Great Britain, and business and banking interests. 1860s 1900s Agrarian Democrats demanding Free Silver overthrew the Bourbon Democrats in 1896 and nominated William Jennings Bryan for the presidency (a nomination repeated by Democrats in 1900 and 1908).
Étienne Cabet Étienne Cabet (January 1, 1788 – November 9, 1856) was a French philosopher and utopian socialist . He was the founder of the Icarian movement and led a group of emigrants to found a new society in the United States . Biography [ edit ] Cabet was born in Dijon , Côte-d'Or . Due to his bitter attacks on the government he was accused of treason in 1834 and fled to England , seeking political asylum . In 1839, Cabet returned to France to advocate a communitarian social movement , for which he invented the term communisme . [ 3 ] Cabet's notion of a communal society influenced other socialist writers and philosophers, notably Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Some of these other writers ignored Cabet's Christian influences , as described in his book Le vrai christianisme suivant Jésus Christ ( The real Christianity according to Jesus Christ , in five volumes). In 1848, Cabet gave up on the notion of reforming French society [ disambiguation needed ] . References [ edit ]
Republican Party (United States) History Founding and 19th century The first official party convention was held on July 6, 1854, in Jackson, Michigan. The Republicans' initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest. Early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan "free labor, free land, free men", which had been coined by Salmon P. The GOP supported business generally, hard money (i.e., the gold standard), high tariffs to promote economic growth, high wages and high profits, generous pensions for Union veterans, and (after 1893) the annexation of Hawaii. Nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers. After the two terms of Democrat Grover Cleveland, the election of William McKinley in 1896 is widely seen as a resurgence of Republican dominance and is sometimes cited as a realigning election. 20th century Warren G. The New Deal coalition of Democrat Franklin D.
Wirtschaftsrechnung im Sozialismus Die Debatte über die Wirtschaftsrechnung im Sozialismus (engl. Calculation Debate ) war eine wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung, die zuerst 1920 und 1922 durch Ludwig von Mises angestoßen und später unter anderem von Friedrich August von Hayek , Trygve J. B. Hoff , Wilhelm Röpke , Lionel Robbins und Abram Bergson fortgeführt wurde. Mises' und seiner Nachfolger radikale Absicht hierbei war, theoretisch die „Undurchführbarkeit“ des Sozialismus zu beweisen. Grundgedanke [ Bearbeiten ] Mises behauptete, dass eine Wirtschaft, die durch zentrale Planentscheidungen gesteuert werde und somit den Markt und die freie Preisbildung ausschalte, zu einer realistischen Rechnungsweise – also zu einer rationalen Verwendung ihrer Ressourcen – nicht in der Lage sei. „Wir haben zeigen können, worin die Undurchführbarkeit sozialistischer Wirtschaftsordnung zu suchen ist. Literatur [ Bearbeiten ] Primärliteratur [ Bearbeiten ] Sekundärliteratur [ Bearbeiten ] David M. Einzelnachweise [ Bearbeiten ]
What a Libertarian Is and Is Not What a Libertarian Is - and Is Notby Sam Wells A libertarian is a person - any person - who consistently advocates individual freedom and consistently opposes the initiation of the use of coercion by anyone upon the person or property of anyone else for any reason. (Coercion is here defined as any action taken by a human being against the will or without the permission of another human being with respect to his or her body or property. This includes murder, rape, kidnaping, assault, trespassing, burglary, robbery, arson and fraud.) Some libertarians (such as the late Robert LeFevre) not only oppose all forms of initiatory coercion, but also the use of retaliatory coercion (revenge or criminal justice).
Economic calculation problem Mises argued in "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if a public entity owned all the means of production, no rational prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods and not "objects of exchange," unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily irrational, as the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently.[1] He wrote "...that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth. Theory[edit] Comparing heterogeneous goods[edit] Since capital goods and labor are highly heterogeneous (i.e., they have different characteristics that pertain to physical productivity), economic calculation requires a common basis for comparison for all forms of capital and labour. Relating utility to capital and consumption goods[edit] Entrepreneurship[edit] Example[edit]
Forscher: Solarindustrie erzeugt mehr Strom als sie verbraucht Seit dem Jahr 2000 hat der Aufbau der Solar-Branche viel Energie gekostet, insbesondere aus fossilen Quellen. Ironischerweise sei dadurch die Erwärmung des Erdklimas begünstigt worden. Mittlerweile, seit vergangenem Jahr, erzeugten aber die weltweit installierten Solar-Panel mehr "saubere Energie", als für den weiteren Ausbau des Industriezweigs benötigt wird. Zu diesem Ergebnis kommen laut Mitteilung Forscher des Global Climate & Energy Project (GCEP) der US-amerikanischen Stanford University in Kalifornien. GCEP-Forscher Michael Dale geht davon aus, dass die Solar-Industrie trotz ihrer großen Wachstumsrate Anfang 2015, spätestens 2020 ihre seit dem Jahr 2000 aufgehäufte "Energieschuld" getilgt haben wird, die zum Beispiel daraus resultiert, um Silizium für die Herstellung der Panel zu schmelzen – und zwar hauptsächlich mit Kohle als Energieträger. Die Forscher rechnen damit, dass im Jahr 2020 rund 10 Prozent des weltweit erzeugten Stroms aus Solaranlagen stammt.