Zero-point energy

Zero-point energy, also called quantum vacuum zero-point energy, is the lowest possible energy that a quantum mechanical physical system may have; it is the energy of its ground state. All quantum mechanical systems undergo fluctuations even in their ground state and have an associated zero-point energy, a consequence of their wave-like nature. The uncertainty principle requires every physical system to have a zero-point energy greater than the minimum of its classical potential well. The concept of zero-point energy was developed in Germany by Albert Einstein and Otto Stern in 1913, as a corrective term added to a zero-grounded formula developed by Max Planck in 1900.[1][2] The term zero-point energy originates from the German Nullpunktsenergie.[1][2] An alternative form of the German term is Nullpunktenergie (without the s). History[edit] In 1900, Max Planck derived the formula for the energy of a single energy radiator, e.g., a vibrating atomic unit:[5] where is Planck's constant, . .

Torus A torus In geometry, a torus (pl. tori) is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three-dimensional space about an axis coplanar with the circle. If the axis of revolution does not touch the circle, the surface has a ring shape and is called a ring torus or simply torus if the ring shape is implicit. In topology, a ring torus is homeomorphic to the Cartesian product of two circles: S1 × S1, and the latter is taken to be the definition in that context. The word torus comes from the Latin word meaning cushion.[1] Geometry[edit] A torus is the product of two circles, in this case the red circle is swept around axis defining the pink circle. Ring torus Horn torus Spindle torus Bottom-halves and cross-sections of the three classes A diagram depicting the poloidal (θ) direction, represented by the red arrow, and the toroidal (ζ or φ) direction, represented by the blue arrow. A torus can be defined parametrically by:[2] where r is the radius of the tube. Topology[edit] Flat torus[edit]

Potential well A potential well is the region surrounding a local minimum of potential energy. Energy captured in a potential well is unable to convert to another type of energy (kinetic energy in the case of a gravitational potential well) because it is captured in the local minimum of a potential well. Therefore, a body may not proceed to the global minimum of potential energy, as it would naturally tend to due to entropy. Overview[edit] Energy may be released from a potential well if sufficient energy is added to the system such that the local maximum is surmounted. The graph of a 2D potential energy function is a potential energy surface that can be imagined as the Earth's surface in a landscape of hills and valleys. In the case of gravity, the region around a mass is a gravitational potential well, unless the density of the mass is so low that tidal forces from other masses are greater than the gravity of the body itself. Quantum confinement[edit] Quantum mechanics view[edit] See also[edit]

Force Carrier Particles Fact File Physics for Beginners - What are Force Carrier Particles? This hub aims to summarise the facts you should already know about force carrier particles and their interactions. In order for you to apply the facts that follow in this hub, you will need to have already learned about the fundamental particles that comprise our universe. If you haven't already done so or need to recap, see: Fundamental Particles Fact File Four Interactions There are four interactions that occur between particles. ElectromagneticStrongWeakGravity Every force that we know of can be explained with these four fundamental interactions. 2. Strong Force and Colour Charges Strong force holds together the quarks inside baryons (e.g. protons and neutrons) and mesons.Strong force works through the relationship between colour charged particles.The force carrier particles that carry strong force are called gluons.Gluons have colour charge and so do the particles that they affect: quarks and anti-quarks Quarks and Colour Charges

Planck constant Plaque at the Humboldt University of Berlin: "Max Planck, discoverer of the elementary quantum of action h, taught in this building from 1889 to 1928." In 1905 the value (E), the energy of a charged atomic oscillator, was theoretically associated with the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself, representing the minimum amount of energy required to form an electromagnetic field (a "quantum"). Further investigation of quanta revealed behaviour associated with an independent unit ("particle") as opposed to an electromagnetic wave and was eventually given the term photon. The Planck relation now describes the energy of each photon in terms of the photon's frequency. This energy is extremely small in terms of ordinary experience. Since the frequency , wavelength λ, and speed of light c are related by λν = c, the Planck relation for a photon can also be expressed as The above equation leads to another relationship involving the Planck constant. Value[edit] Significance of the value[edit]

Keys 2 Cognition - Cognitive Processes 47. Trust what emerges from brainstorming. 48. Your Demographic Data This assessment and your upcoming results are free of charge. Your sex: Your age: This model tries to tap into development. Which of the following best represents your background, career, and training? Which region below best represents your cultural upbringing or ethnicity? Your Myers-Briggs type code, as you best know? Your name + birth year or other memorable identifier: Minimum 10 letters. The forum, person or website that brought you here: Your comments (optional): Warning! When you are ready, please click submit to view results... Copyright January 2005, 2021, Dario Nardi, with thanks to Dr. Magnus effect The Magnus effect, depicted with a back-spinning cylinder or ball in an air stream. The arrow represents the resulting lifting force. The curly flow lines represent a turbulent wake. The Magnus effect is the commonly observed effect in which a spinning ball (or cylinder) curves away from its principal flight path. In terms of ball games, top spin is defined as spin about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the direction of travel, where the top surface of the ball is moving forward with the spin. It is named for Gustav Magnus, the German physicist who investigated it. Physics[edit] A valid intuitive understanding of the phenomenon is possible, beginning with the fact that, by conservation of momentum, the deflective force on the body is no more or less than a reaction to the deflection that the body imposes on the air-flow. In fact there are several ways in which the rotation might cause such a deflection. On a cylinder, the force due to rotation is known as Kutta-Joukowski lift.

Standard Model The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory concerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear interactions, as well as classifying all the subatomic particles known. It was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century, as a collaborative effort of scientists around the world.[1] The current formulation was finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, discoveries of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and more recently the Higgs boson (2013), have given further credence to the Standard Model. Because of its success in explaining a wide variety of experimental results, the Standard Model is sometimes regarded as a "theory of almost everything". Historical background[edit] The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. Overview[edit] Particle content[edit] Fermions[edit] Gauge bosons[edit] Higgs boson[edit] Main article: Higgs boson E.S.