Authenticity Authenticity or authentic may refer to: Authentication, the act of confirming the truth of an attribute Arts and entertainment[edit] Authenticity in art, ways in which a work of art or an artistic performance may be considered authentic Music[edit] Authentic performance, an approach to the performance of classical musicAuthentic Records, a record labelAuthentic mode, a set of pitch organizations used in Gregorian chant Albums[edit] Other uses[edit] See also[edit]
Meaning of life Questions Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including the following: What is the meaning of life? Philosopher in Meditation (detail) by RembrandtWhy are we here? These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and arguments, from scientific theories, to philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations. Scientific inquiry and perspectives Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. Psychological significance and value in life Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems. Platonism
Trope (philosophy) Nominalism Here a trope is a figurative and metaphorical use of a word or a phrase. The verb to trope means then to make a trope. Trope theory (or trope nominalism) in metaphysics is a version of nominalism. Here, a trope is a particular instance of a property, like the redness of a particular rose, or the specific nuance of green of a specific individual leaf. The basic problem is the problem of universals. The other solution is that of nominalism. Bertrand Russell (1912, chapter IX) argued against Berkeley and took the same basic position as Plato. Two popular recent solutions to the problem of universals, as it relates to the possibility of entities existing in multiple locations at the same time, are as follows. David Armstrong, a prominent Australian philosopher, argues, that there are instantiated universals, like Russell and the middle Plato. For Hayden White, tropes historically unfolded in this sequence: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and finally, irony.
Existentialism Existentialism is a term applied to the work of certain late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,[1][2][3] shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.[4] In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.[5] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[6][7] Definitional issues and background[edit] There has never been general agreement on the definition of existentialism. Concepts[edit] Existence precedes essence[edit] "The subjective thinker’s form, the form of his communication, is his style. The Absurd[edit] Facticity[edit] Angst[edit]
Late Middle Ages Period of European history between 1250 and 1500 CE From the Apocalypse in a Biblia Pauperum illuminated at Erfurt around the time of the Great Famine. Death sits astride a lion whose long tail ends in a ball of flame (Hell). Famine points to her hungry mouth. The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from 1250 to 1500 AD. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renaissance).[1] Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. Historiography and periodization[edit] Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. Music[edit]
Transcendentals Truth, beauty, and goodness The transcendentals (Latin: transcendentalia, from transcendere "to exceed") are the properties of being, nowadays commonly considered to be truth, beauty, and goodness[citation needed]. The concept arose from medieval scholasticism. Viewed ontologically, the transcendentals are understood to be what is common to all beings. From the time of Albertus Magnus in the High Middle Ages, the transcendentals have been the subject of metaphysics. History[edit] Parmenides first inquired of the properties co-extensive with being.[2] Socrates, spoken through Plato, then followed (see Form of the Good). Aristotle's substance theory (being a substance belongs to being qua being) has been interpreted as a theory of transcendentals.[3] Aristotle discusses only unity ("One") explicitly because it is the only transcendental intrinsically related to being, whereas truth and goodness relate to rational creatures.[4] See also[edit] References[edit] Bibliography[edit] Jan A.
Individual That which exists as a distinct figure or entity An individual is that which exists as a distinct entity. Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of living as an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) of as a person unique from other people and possessing one's own needs or goals, rights and responsibilities. The concept of an individual features in diverse fields, including biology, law, and philosophy. Etymology[edit] From the 15th century and earlier (and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics) individual meant "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person". Biology[edit] Law[edit] Philosophy[edit] Buddhism[edit] Empiricism[edit] Empiricists such as Ibn Tufail[4] in early 12th century Islamic Spain and John Locke in late 17th century England viewed the individual as a tabula rasa ("blank slate"), shaped from birth by experience and education. Hegel[edit] Existentialism[edit] Objectivism[edit]
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud (/frɔɪd/;[2] German pronunciation: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏ̯t]; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis. Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881,[3] and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital.[4] Upon completing his habilitation in 1895, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology in the same year and became an affiliated professor (professor extraordinarius) in 1902.[5][6] Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychotherapy, within some areas of psychiatry, and across the humanities. Biography[edit] Early life and education[edit] Freud's birthplace, a rented room in a locksmith's house, Příbor, Czech Republic Freud (aged 16) and his beloved[12] mother, Amalia, in 1872 In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. Early followers[edit]
Transcendence (philosophy) Concept designating the extra-categorical attributes of beings In religion, transcendence refers to the aspect of God's nature and power which is wholly independent of the material universe, beyond all physical laws. This is contrasted with immanence, where a god is said to be fully present in the physical world and thus accessible to creatures in various ways. Although transcendence is defined as the opposite of immanence, the two are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For Kant, the "transcendent", as opposed to the "transcendental", is that which lies beyond what our faculty of knowledge can legitimately know. Contemporary transcendental philosophy is developed by German philosopher Harald Holz with a holistic approach. Philosophical definitions of transcendence often emphasize the idea of going beyond or exceeding the limits of human experience, and may focus on concepts such as rationality, consciousness, or the nature of reality.
Propositional attitude Concept in epistemology A propositional attitude is a mental state held by an agent or organism toward a proposition. In philosophy, propositional attitudes can be considered to be neurally-realized causally efficacious content-bearing internal states (personal principles/values).[1] Linguistically, propositional attitudes are denoted by a verb (e.g. believed) governing an embedded "that" clause, for example, 'Sally believed that she had won'. Propositional attitudes are often assumed to be the fundamental units of thought and their contents, being propositions, are true or false from the perspective of the person. Propositional attitudes have directions of fit: some are meant to reflect the world, others to influence it. One topic of central concern is the relation between the modalities of assertion and belief, perhaps with intention thrown in for good measure. Indiscernibility of identicals [edit] What sort of name shall we give to verbs like 'believe' and 'wish' and so forth?
Id, ego and super-ego The three parts are the theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction our mental life is described. According to this Freudian model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego.[1] As Freud explained: The functional importance of the ego is manifested in the fact that normally control over the approaches to motility devolves upon it. Although the model is structural and makes reference to an apparatus, the id, ego and super-ego are purely psychological concepts and do not correspond to (somatic) structures of the brain such as the kind dealt with by neuroscience. Freud (1933) hypothesizes different levels of ego ideal or superego development with increasingly greater ideals: The earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. Id[edit] In the id: Ego[edit] People