Gestalt psychology Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt – "shape or form") is a theory of mind of the Berlin School. The central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. This principle maintains that the human mind considers objects in their entirety before, or in parallel with, perception of their individual parts; suggesting the whole is other than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. In the domain of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviorist approach to understanding the elements of cognitive processes, gestalt psychologists sought to understand their organization (Carlson and Heth, 2010). Origins[edit] Gestalt therapy[edit] Theoretical framework and methodology[edit] Properties[edit] Reification
Absent-minded professor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Stock character in film The absent-minded professor is a stock character of popular fiction, usually portrayed as a talented academic whose academic brilliance is accompanied by below-par functioning in other areas, leading to forgetfulness and mistakes. Examples of real scholars[edit] The archetype is very old: the ancient Greek biographer Diogenes Laërtius wrote that the philosopher Thales walked at night with his eyes focused on the heavens and, as a result, fell down a well.[1] Thomas Aquinas,[2] Isaac Newton,[3] Adam Smith, André-Marie Ampère, Jacques Hadamard, Sewall Wright, Nikola Tesla, Norbert Wiener, Archimedes, Pierre Curie[4] and Albert Einstein[3] were all scholars considered to be absent-minded – their attention absorbed by their academic studies. Fictitious examples[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] External links[edit]
Normative ethics Branch of philosophical ethics that examines standards for morality Normative ethics is the study of ethical behaviour and is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates questions regarding how one ought to act, in a moral sense. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics in that the former examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, whereas the latter studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts. An adequate justification for a group of principles needs an explanation of those principles. Most traditional moral theories rest on principles that determine whether an action is right or wrong. Normative ethical theories[edit] There are disagreements about what precisely gives an action, rule, or disposition its ethical force. Virtue ethics[edit] Deontological ethics[edit] Deontology argues that decisions should be made considering the factors of one's duties and one's rights. Consequentialism[edit] Other theories[edit] —Philippa Foot
First principle Basic proposition or assumption In philosophy and science, a first principle is a basic proposition or assumption that cannot be deduced from any other proposition or assumption. First principles in philosophy are from first cause[1] attitudes and taught by Aristotelians, and nuanced versions of first principles are referred to as postulates by Kantians.[2] In mathematics and formal logic, first principles are referred to as axioms or postulates. In physics and other sciences, theoretical work is said to be from first principles, or ab initio, if it starts directly at the level of established science and does not make assumptions such as empirical model and parameter fitting. In formal logic[edit] In a formal logical system, that is, a set of propositions that are consistent with one another, it is possible that some of the statements can be deduced from other statements. A first principle is an axiom that cannot be deduced from any other within that system. Philosophy[edit] See also[edit]
Problem solving Problem solving consists of using generic or ad hoc methods, in an orderly manner, for finding solutions to problems. Some of the problem-solving techniques developed and used in artificial intelligence, computer science, engineering, mathematics, medicine, etc. are related to mental problem-solving techniques studied in psychology. Definition[edit] The term problem-solving is used in many disciplines, sometimes with different perspectives, and often with different terminologies. For instance, it is a mental process in psychology and a computerized process in computer science. Psychology[edit] While problem solving accompanies the very beginning of human evolution and especially the history of mathematics,[4] the nature of human problem solving processes and methods has been studied by psychologists over the past hundred years. Clinical psychology[edit] Cognitive sciences[edit] Computer science and algorithmics[edit] Engineering[edit] Cognitive sciences: two schools[edit] Europe[edit]
Abstract and concrete Metaphysics concept covering the divide between two types of entities Abstract objects are most commonly used in philosophy and semantics. They are sometimes called abstracta in contrast to concreta. The term abstract object is said to have been coined by Willard Van Orman Quine.[5] Abstract object theory is a discipline that studies the nature and role of abstract objects. It holds that properties can be related to objects in two ways: through exemplification and through encoding. Concrete objects exemplify their properties while abstract objects merely encode them. The type–token distinction identifies physical objects that are tokens of a particular type of thing.[7] The "type" of which it is a part is in itself an abstract object. Abstract objects have often garnered the interest of philosophers because they raise problems for popular theories. In modern philosophy, the distinction between abstract and concrete was explored by Immanuel Kant[10] and G. Abstract objects and causality
Entailment Logicians make precise accounts of logical consequence with respect to a given language by constructing a deductive system for , or by formalizing the intended semantics for . Formal accounts of logical consequence[edit] The most widely prevailing view on how to best account for logical consequence is to appeal to formality. are . . This is in contrast to an argument like "Fred is Mike's brother's son. is 's brother's son, therefore 's nephew" is valid in all cases, but is not a formal argument.[1] A priori property of logical consequence[edit] If you know that follows logically from no information about the possible interpretations of or will affect that knowledge. is a logical consequence of cannot be influenced by empirical knowledge.[1] Deductively valid arguments can be known to be so without recourse to experience, so they must be knowable a priori.[1] However, formality alone does not guarantee that logical consequence is not influenced by empirical knowledge. Proofs and models[edit] A formula
Formal system Mathematical model for deduction or proof systems In 1921, David Hilbert proposed to use formal systems as the foundation of knowledge in mathematics.[2] The term formalism is sometimes a rough synonym for formal system, but it also refers to a given style of notation, for example, Paul Dirac's bra–ket notation. A formal system has the following:[3][4][5] A formal system is said to be recursive (i.e. effective) or recursively enumerable if the set of axioms and the set of inference rules are decidable sets or semidecidable sets, respectively. A formal language is a language that is defined by a formal system. A deductive system, also called a deductive apparatus,[8] consists of the axioms (or axiom schemata) and rules of inference that can be used to derive theorems of the system.[9] The logical consequence (or entailment) of the system by its logical foundation is what distinguishes a formal system from others which may have some basis in an abstract model. A logical system is:
Symmetry Sphere symmetrical group o representing an octahedral rotational symmetry. The yellow region shows the fundamental domain. Symmetry (from Greek συμμετρία symmetria "agreement in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement")[1] has two meanings. The first is a vague sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance.[2][3] The second is an exact mathematical "patterned self-similarity" that can be demonstrated with the rules of a formal system, such as geometry or physics. Although these two meanings of "symmetry" can sometimes be told apart, they are related, so they are here discussed together.[3] Mathematical symmetry may be observed This article describes these notions of symmetry from four perspectives. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry. Geometry[edit] A geometric object is typically symmetric only under a subgroup of isometries. Reflectional symmetry[edit] An isosceles triangle with mirror symmetry. A drawing of a butterfly with bilateral symmetry Rotational symmetry[edit] .
Abstract labour and concrete labour Abstract labour and concrete labour refer to a distinction made by Karl Marx in his critique of political economy. It refers to the difference between human labour in general as economically valuable time, and human labour as a particular activity that has a specific useful effect. As economically valuable time, human labour is spent to add value to products or assets (thereby conserving their capital value, and/or transferring value from inputs to outputs). In this sense, labour is an activity which creates/maintains economic value pure and simple, which could be realized as a sum of money once labour's product is sold or acquired by a buyer. The value-creating ability of labour is most clearly visible when all labour is stopped. Origin[edit] Marx first advanced this distinction in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) and it is discussed in more detail in chapter 1 of Capital, where Marx writes: The twofold nature of the production for exchange purposes.
Monolith In architecture, the term has considerable overlap with megalith, which is normally used for prehistory, and may be used in the contexts of rock-cut architecture that remains attached to solid rock, as in monolithic church, or for exceptionally large stones such as obelisks, statues, monolithic columns or large architraves, that may have been moved a considerable distance after quarrying. It may also be used of large glacial erratics moved by natural forces. The word derives, via the Latin monolithus, from the Ancient Greek word μονόλιθος (monolithos), from μόνος ("one" or "single") and λίθος ("stone"). Geological monoliths[edit] Large, well-known monoliths include: Africa[edit] Aso Rock, NigeriaBen Amera, MauritaniaBrandberg Mountain, NamibiaSibebe, SwazilandSphinx, EgyptZuma Rock, Nigeria Antarctica[edit] Scullin monolith Asia[edit] Bellary, IndiaMount Kelam, IndonesiaMadhugiri Betta, IndiaSangla Hill, PakistanSavandurga, IndiaSigiriya, Sri LankaYana, India Australia[edit] Europe[edit]
Axiom Statement that is taken to be true The precise definition varies across fields of study. In classic philosophy, an axiom is a statement that is so evident or well-established, that it is accepted without controversy or question.[3] In modern logic, an axiom is a premise or starting point for reasoning.[4] In mathematics, an axiom may be a "logical axiom" or a "non-logical axiom". Logical axioms are taken to be true within the system of logic they define and are often shown in symbolic form (e.g., (A and B) implies A), while non-logical axioms (e.g., a + b = b + a) are substantive assertions about the elements of the domain of a specific mathematical theory, such as arithmetic. Non-logical axioms may also be called "postulates" or "assumptions". Any axiom is a statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. Etymology[edit] Ancient geometers maintained some distinction between axioms and postulates. Historical development[edit] Early Greeks[edit] in